Prevalence and potency of trauma reminders 8.5 years after a terrorist attack

Abstract

Background:Empirical knowledge about the prevalence and potency of reminders severalyears post-trauma, and how experiences with reminders relate to mental health andfunctioning, is scarce.Objective:The aim of this study was threefold: (1) systematically describe the type andfrequency of trauma reminders experienced by survivors 8.5 years after a terrorist attack; (2)explore the intensity and duration of reactions evoked by various reminders; and (3)examine whether experiences with trauma reminders are associated with psychologicaldistress and level of functioning almost a decade post-trauma.Method:289 survivors (51.2% females,Mage= 27.7,SD= 4.6) of the 2011 massacre on Utøyaisland, Norway, were interviewed 8.5 years post-terror. Participants were presented with a list often potential trauma reminders and asked to rate how frequently they had experienced eachone in the past month, and the intensity and duration of the reactions evoked. Currentposttraumatic reactions were measured using the UCLA PTSD-RI and the HSCL-8.Associations between experiences with reminders, psychological distress, and functioning,were analysed by linear regressions.Results:At 8.5 years post-terror, approximately 90% of the participants had experiencedtrauma reminders within the past month (35.6% often or very often). Almost 30% hadbecome distressed, afraid, sad, or experienced bodily reactions to a great or very greatextent. The vast majority reported that the reactions only lasted for a few minutes or hours.Frequency of exposure to reminders, and the intensity of the reactions evoked, weresignificantly associated with psychological distress. Frequency of exposure to traumareminders was negatively related to the survivors’level of functioning.Conclusions:Trauma reminders can still be a central source of psychological distress andimpaired functioning among survivors almost a decade post-trauma. While everyone who isdirectly exposed to a terrorist attack does not need psychotherapy, most would probablybenefit from psychoeducation about reminders,