| dc.description.abstract | Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with graphite-based anodes dominate the battery market around the world and have been studied extensively for the past decades, but the structural changes during cycling are still not fully understood. In this work, we used galvanostatic cycling (GC) to characterize the electrochemical performance of graphite samples in LIB. We also attempted to achieve stable capacities over hundreds of cycles to monitor the effect of long-term cycling on the mechanisms of graphite, with limited success. The fabricated coin cells experienced poor capacity retention across all graphite samples and some abnormal capacity increases that had not been observed previously. We noticed that electrolytes containing FEC made a noticeable change to the electrochemical performance as it resulted in irregular cycling, but also better capacity retention. Operando X-ray diffraction is a powerful technique to understand structural changes. We looked at multiple graphite reflections, mainly 002, 100, 101, 102 and 004, and observed that the expansion of the structure is not only 2 dimensions but all 3 dimensions as the interlayer distance and graphene layers expands during lithiation. We also monitored this expansion of graphene layers with pair distribution function (PDF) as the three C-C distances in hexagonal carbon rings, 1.41 Å, 2.41 Å and 2.85 Å, changed lengths at different points during lithiation and delithiation. We looked at diffraction peaks during lithiation and delithiation to study the mechanisms and observed that they were different. Lithiation showed solid solution like behavior indicating disordered intermediate phases, while delithiation showed two-phase transition indicating ordered structures. In this work we have used Operando X-ray diffraction to show that the structural changes graphite undergoes during cycling, transition from graphite to LiC6, is not specific to each graphite sample and the structural changes depend on the condition of the material. Pristine graphite samples transitioned fully to LiC6 during cycling with C-rate of C/6, but only LiC12 when a higher C-rate of C/2 was used. Graphite electrodes cut from commercial pouch cells that had cycled many hundreds of electrochemical cycles were able to transition to LiC6 during C/20, but only LiC12 during C/6, indicating an “ageing” mechanism. | eng |